Most of the Beef Cattle Industry Is Centered in the Southern and Sates
Asian-Australas J Anim Sci. 2018 Jul; 31(7): 1007–1016.
Current situation and time to come trends for beefiness product in the United States of America — A review
James S. Drouillard
1Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas Land University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
Received 2016 Jun 8; Accustomed 2018 Jun eight.
Abstract
USA beefiness product is characterized by a diversity of climates, ecology conditions, beast phenotypes, management systems, and a multiplicity of nutritional inputs. The Usa beefiness herd consists of more than lxxx breeds of cattle and crosses thereof, and the industry is divided into distinct, but often overlapping sectors, including seedstock production, moo-cow-calf production, stocker/backgrounding, and feedlot. Exception for male dairy calves, production is predominantly pastoral-based, with young stock spending relatively brief portions of their life in feedlots. The beef industry is very technology driven, utilizing reproductive management strategies, genetic improvement technologies, exogenous growth promoting compounds, vaccines, antibiotics, and feed processing strategies, focusing on improvements in efficiency and price of production. Immature steers and heifers are grain-based diets fed for an average of 5 months, mostly in feedlots of 1,000 head chapters or more, and typically are slaughtered at 15 to 28 months of age to produce tender, well-marbled beef. Per capita beef consumption is nearly 26 kg annually, over half of which is consumed in the form of basis products. Beef exports, which are increasingly of import, consist primarily of high value cuts and variety meats, depending on destination. In recent years, adverse climatic conditions (i.e., draught), a shrinking agricultural workforce, emergence of nutrient-borne pathogens, concerns over development of antimicrobial resistance, animate being welfare/well-being, environmental impact, consumer perceptions of healthfulness of beef, consumer perceptions of nutrient beast production practices, and alternative uses of traditional feed grains have become increasingly important with respect to their impact on both beef production and demand for beef products. Similarly, changing consumer demographics and globalization of beefiness markets accept dictated changes in the types of products demanded by consumers of Usa beef, both domestically and away. The manufacture is highly adaptive, however, and responds speedily to evolving economic signals.
Keywords: Beef, Production Systems, Growth Promotion, Carcass Quality
INTRODUCTION
Beefiness product systems in the United States are characterized past a broad range of climates, environmental conditions, brute phenotypes, management practices, and a multiplicity of nutritional inputs. In dissimilarity to international perceptions, United states of america production systems are, with the notable exception of male dairy calves, predominantly pastoral-based, with young stock typically spending relatively brief portions of their life in solitude facilities for finishing on high-concentrate diets. Beef production at the cow-calf level is widely distributed, and exists in all fifty states, spanning the range from tropical savannah to Chill tundra, temperate plains, and mountain pastures. Vast differences in geographies and climatic conditions necessitate the use of a broad spectrum of animal phenotypes that are suited to these environments, encompassing both Bos taurus and Bos indicus breeds and crosses thereof. The feedlot stage of production, which normally is between 100 and 300 days elapsing, is heavily full-bodied within the interior of the continental Usa, and relies heavily on cereal grains and grain byproducts produced within this area as predominant feed resource, and feedlot cattle near normally are marketed at ages ranging from 15 to 28 months. Product of beef in the U.South. historically has been very engineering science driven, utilizing reproductive management strategies, genetic improvement technologies, exogenous growth promoting compounds, vaccines, antibiotics, and feed processing strategies, all of which focused on improving efficiency and(or) decreasing cost of beef production. In more recent years, adverse climatic weather (i.e., draught), a shrinking agricultural workforce, control of food-borne pathogens, concerns over evolution of antimicrobial resistance, animal welfare, beast well-existence, ecology impact of confinement feeding operations, consumer perceptions of healthfulness of beef, consumer perceptions of food animal product practices, and culling uses for traditional feed grains have get increasingly of import with respect to their affect on both beef production and demand for beefiness products. Similarly, changing consumer demographics and globalization of beef markets have dictated changes in the types of products demanded from producers of U.Southward. beef. Beef product systems are thus increasingly dynamic in their nature, and poised to exploit new market opportunities past altering production practices to meet irresolute consumer demands.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF U.S. COW-Dogie OPERATIONS AND FEEDLOTS
Every bit of January 31, 2018, total U.s. inventory of beef cows was estimated at 31.7 million head, with cow-dogie operations in all 50 states [1]. The beef cow inventory fluctuates considerably from twelvemonth to year, as shown in Figure i, and can exist influenced heavily by market atmospheric condition and environmental factors, such as persistent draught conditions. In the Usa, about 320 meg hectares are used for livestock grazing [2], which is equivalent to 41% of the total state expanse of the continental USA. Approximately 55% of all beef cows are maintained in the Key region of the continental USA [iii], which is characterized by vast native grasslands and expansive production of row crops such as corn, soybeans, wheat, grain sorghum, and other crops. Roughly 20% of the national herd is in the Western region, commonly utilizing expansive state areas that are federally owned and leased to beef producers past regime agencies. The Southeastern region, often typified by smaller product units that rely heavily on improved pastures, also is home to approximately twenty% of the national herd. The remaining 5% are interspersed throughout the Northeast, Alaska, and Hawaii. Each of these regions makes employ of very different systems of beef production, owing to a divergent range of climates and feed resources in each area. For case, western herds frequently employ federal lands for grazing in the spring and summertime, and cattle then are removed from federal lands and overwintered on privately-owned pastures and/or fed harvested forages until the first of the next grazing cycle. By dissimilarity, operations in the Primal region frequently make use of a mixture of native grass pastures, ingather residues, harvested forages, and protein concentrates to sustain their cow herds.
US beef cow inventory on Jan 1, from 1938 to 2018. Source: United States Department of Agronomics [1].
Feedlots, unlike cow-calf operations, are far more concentrated geographically, with over 72% of feedlot product occurring in the v-state area [four] of Nebraska (19.8%), Texas (18.9%), Kansas (17.5%), Iowa (ix.0%), and Colorado (7.i%). Concentration of feedlots in this surface area is largely driven by access to cereal grains and grain byproducts that predominate the diets of finishing cattle. Other important regions for cattle feeding accept developed throughout the state in response to availability of low-cost feedstuffs, particularly byproduct feeds. For example, the Washington-Idaho region is a major site for product and processing of potatoes, fruits, and vegetables as foods for humans. Cattle feeding operations take developed in response to availability of large quantities of processed nutrient residues in this region, and correspond an important means for disposal of these byproducts, thereby creating boosted value to the food chain.
CATTLE BREEDS USED FOR Beef PRODUCTION IN THE Us OF AMERICA
The U.s. beefiness herd is very heterogeneous in nature, consisting of more fourscore breeds and crosses thereof, and reflecting the diversity of environments in which they are produced. Co-ordinate to the most recent report on brood registrations by the National Pedigreed Livestock Council [5], member breed associations with the greatest number of registrations were Angus, Hereford, Simmental, Red Angus, Charolais, Gelbvieh, Brangus, Limousin, Beefmaster, Shorthorn, and Brahman. While this list gives some sense of the diversity of cattle types in the U.S., most cattle fed for slaughter actually are crossbreds, with sixty% or more having some degree of Angus influence. Dairy breeds, most notably Holsteins, as well make up a substantial portion of United states feedlot cattle, with every bit many equally 3 to 4 meg dairy calves existence fed in USA feedlots each year.
USA System FOR BEEF PRODUCTION
The United states of america organization of beefiness product is highly segmented, often resulting in several changes of ownership between the time animals are weaned and slaughtered. Seedstock operations primarily produce bulls that are used to service cows in commercial cow-calf operations. The main production of cow-dogie operations is weaned calves, which are sold to stocker operators, backgrounding lots, or feedlots. Figure 2 illustrates the possible paths that animals may take through the beefiness product chain before being slaughtered. Calves from cow-dogie operations generally follow one of ii paths. They can be transferred direct to feedlots at or effectually the time of weaning, in which instance they are referred to as "calf-feds" that remain in the feedlot for 240 days or more before being harvested. Calf-fed may brand up 40% or more of the fed cattle population in the USA. The largest share of the dogie population, usually 60% or more, is first placed into a backgrounding or stocker operation, or a combination thereof, to be grown for a period of time before fattened on loftier-concentrate diets. These animals are grown mostly using forage-based diets and then transferred to feedlots when they are a yr or more of age, and thus are referred to every bit "yearlings". Stocker (grazing) and backgrounding (drylot) systems rely heavily on forages as the predominant component of the diet, supplementing protein, energy, vitamins, and minerals every bit needed to optimize cattle performance. A relatively small-scale proportion of backgrounded cattle are grown at small rates of gain using limit-feeding programs in which they are fed high-concentrate diets, similar to a high-free energy finishing diet, but in restricted amounts to prevent premature fattening.
Schematic for flow of cattle through the U.S. beef production concatenation, illustrating direct entry from moo-cow-calf and dairy operations into feedlots (blue lines) and abattoirs (red lines), or following a growing phase (purple lines) carried out in specialized facilities (calf ranches, backgrounding operations, or stocker operations).
Male calves from dairies also constitute an important com ponent of the beefiness cattle market place. These calves are gathered from dairies at an early age (normally about three days) and transferred to specialized rearing operations known as dogie ranches. Calves typically are confined to individual stalls to prevent intermingling, as they are highly susceptible to affliction at this stage of their lives. Calves are fed a combination of milk replacers, grain, and small amounts of forage until weaning at 40 to 80 days of age, and so transferred to group housing inside the aforementioned performance. These animals usually are sold to feedlots when they reach a weight of approximately 150 to 200 kg.
Cull beefiness and dairy animals too contribute to the beefiness sup ply, and most commonly are shipped from seedstock, moo-cow-calf, or dairy operations directly to abattoirs for harvest. A relatively small and variable proportion is sent to feedlots to exist fed high-free energy diets for 50 to 100 days before beingness slaughtered. The number of cull animals that are fattened in feedlots before being slaughtered varies essentially from year to year, and is largely a function of the relationships between feed costs, beef supply, and beef demand.
Male cattle in the Usa are nearly always fed as steers, and abattoirs apply heavy discounts to intact males or males that display advanced secondary sex characteristics. Castration effectively decreases the occurrence of undesirable social behaviors and meat quality characteristics, such as dark, firm, and dry beef. Muscle from steers also contains less connective tissue than that from bulls, and steers deposit more intramuscular fatty (marbling) than bulls. Castration tin occur at various times betwixt birth and after entry into feedlots, with the vast majority being castrated before or virtually the historic period of weaning. A relatively modest proportion is castrated after entry into feedlots, though this practise is heavily discouraged and significant discounts are applied to intact feeder cattle due to high morbidity rates in animals that are castrated at an advanced age. In terms of methodology, balderdash calves are most frequently castrated surgically or by banding.
Heifers fed in feedlots constitute approximately 28% to thirty% of beefiness supply in the The states [iv]. Compared to steers, however, nearly feedlot heifers are fed intact, and while some are ovariectomized, it is far more common to feed melengestrol acetate (a synthetic form of progesterone) to inhibit estrus behavior.
Market place atmospheric condition at the fourth dimension of weaning can greatly im pact the age at which cattle are placed into feedlots. Size of the national herd is cyclical in nature, attributable to fluctuations in weather (such as extended draught periods), and fluctuating prices. When overall size of the national beef herd is relatively low, fewer animals are available, creating competition between stocker and backgrounding operations and feedlots for supply of cattle. Relationships betwixt prices of grain and forages likewise can influence historic period of entry into feedlots. When costs for pasture and harvested forages are low in comparison to grains, producers have incentive to grow cattle before placing them into feedlots. By contrast, when grain prices are low relative to prices for forages, a greater proportion of eligible animals may enter the feedlot direct.
Weather condition also plays a very significant role in the age at which cattle are placed into feedlots. Ecology temperatures and atmospheric precipitation patterns obviously impact both quantity and quality of forages produced, so it stands to reason that adverse climatic conditions tin influence duration of the grazing flavor, and every bit a result the proportion of cattle that are marketed as calves versus as yearlings. For case, several million cattle normally are grazed on small grain pastures in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas in the fall and winter each year. In the absence of acceptable rainfall, poor forage yield may dictate premature termination of the grazing season, in which case cattle are transferred to feedlots to exist fed. The same is truthful for native grass pastures that are grazed in the leap, summer, and fall. Drought conditions can force producers to market cattle early, as they oft have limited feed reserves. Regardless of cause, the system of merchandising cattle is very dynamic, responding apace to market place conditions.
Prices paid for slaughter cattle in the U.Southward. are influenced by age, quality grade, yield grade, and weight. The USA quality grading system takes into account age, equally determined by bone ossification patterns, colour of lean tissue, and the amount of intramuscular fat (marbling). Increased intramuscular fat deposition increases course, and premiums are paid for cattle that have high intramuscular fatty content. Yield grade is a measure of fatness that accounts for increases in fat within the subcutaneous, intermuscular, and peritoneal regions of the carcass. Animals that deposit excesses of fat in these areas generally accept poor red meat yield, and prices are discounted accordingly. Weight of carcasses besides is an important determinant of value, every bit carcasses that are less than 250 kg or more than than 430 kg are subject area to substantial discounts. Given the high correlation between intramuscular fat and other fatty depots, securing high marketplace value requires that cattle exist fed long enough to accomplish sufficient (but not excessive) body fatty, produce carcasses ranging in weight from 250 to 430 kg, and do and so at fewer than 30 months of age. Consequently, there are limitations with respect to the ability to shift cattle into different production scenarios. For instance, cattle that are heavily influenced by British-breed beginnings ofttimes are smaller framed, and therefore do good from extended growing programs that allow for skeletal growth and muscle deposition earlier fattening, thereby ensuring that they achieve desired market weights at advisable fatness. Initiating the feedlot phase likewise early in the life of the animals can predispose them to premature fattening, low carcass weights, or both. This is particularly true for heifers, which comprise a substantial portion of the fed cattle population in the USA. Alternatively, large-framed phenotypes that are typical of breeds from continental Europe tin can produce carcasses with excessive weights if grown for extended periods of time earlier finishing in feedlots. These animals are well-suited to the calf-fed feedlot system in which they are placed into feedlots straight after weaning.
The segmented nature of the beefiness industry in the USA is an important distinction from the vertical integration commonly associated with other meat creature production systems such as pork and poultry. While there is a relative absence of vertical integration in the beef supply chain, there are increasingly attempts for producers representing the various production segments to align vertically with other segments via supply agreements. The value of, or necessity for, vertical alignment is particularly axiomatic with branded beef programs. For example, marketing of some branded beef products is based on the premise of no antibiotic or steroidal hormone use throughout the lifetime of the beast, requiring that purveyors have control over production methods employed through each phase of production in order to ensure compliance. This frequently is accomplished using supply agreements that reward producers with premiums for producing animals that meet specifications of the branded beefiness program.
USE OF GROWTH PROMOTING TECHNOLOGIES IN U.Southward. Beefiness Product SYSTEMS
Beef producers in the USA historically have been very engineering science driven. Examples of this include strategic supplementation of fodder-based diets to fulfill beast requirements for protein, energy, vitamins, or minerals. Several key classes of growth promotants besides are used widely, either every bit feed additives or as hormone-impregnated implants that are inserted beneath the skin of the ears.
Steroidal-based growth implants have been used in the The states for decades, thus making information technology possible to regain some of the growth-promoting effects of endogenous hormones that are lost as a outcome of castration. Implants employ estrogenic (estradiol or zeranol) and androgenic (testosterone or trenbolone acetate) components, or combinations thereof. Steroidal implants stimulate feed intake and protein degradation, and have dramatic touch on on cattle performance and efficiency of feed utilization. Their use is very widespread, encompassing both growing and finishing phases of product. They are most heavily used in confinement operations, including backgrounding operations and feedlots. Notable exceptions are branded beef programs that disqualify their use, such as natural, organic, or non-hormone treated cattle programs aimed at specific value-added markets.
Similarly, antibiotics accept been widely used in United states of america cattle production systems. Ionophore antibiotics, the nearly common of which are monensin and lasalocid, are used widely for beef production in the USA, both for control of coccidiosis and for improving feed efficiency. Feed additive forms of tetracyclines and macrolide antibiotics have been used extensively in the United States. Starting in January, 2017, the USA Food and Drug Administration imposed new regulations that prohibit sub-therapeutic feeding of medically-important antibiotics [half-dozen], which includes oxtetracyline, chlortetracycline, and the macrolide antibody, tylosin. These drugs at present are restricted for apply merely in the treatment or prevention of affliction, and must be prescribed past a veterinarian. Changes in the regulatory condition of these compounds has spawned an unprecedented interest in alternative product methods and research aimed at reducing or eliminating antibiotics from food animal production systems, peculiarly for compounds that are accounted medically important for human wellness. Essential oils, minerals, prebiotics, and probiotics are amidst the many production categories that are now beingness evaluated as alternatives to traditional antibiotics for promotion of growth and efficiency.
Beta adrenergic receptor agonists are used extensively in diets of feedlot cattle to stimulate muscle accretion. Beta agonists are non-steroidal, and they stimulate muscle accretion by increasing poly peptide synthesis and decreasing protein catabolism. The beta adrenergic agonist, ractopamine hydrochloride, was approved for apply in cattle starting in 2003. Zilpaterol was approved for utilize in the The states in 2008, and though more potent than ractopamine, zilpaterol it is at present seldom used due to restrictions imposed past major slaughterhouse companies. Ractopamine is administered to cattle during the final 28 to 42 days before slaughter, and though the exact number of cattle fed ractopamine is not known, it is used by the vast majority of U.s.a. feedlots. A recent survey of feedlot nutritionists [7] revealed that approximately 85% of feedlots represented in the survey utilize beta agonists.
Synthetic progestin (melengestrol acetate) is fed to synchro nize oestrus in breeding herds, especially where artificial insemination is used. It is estimated that fewer than 10% of beef females are bred by artificial insemination, so the greatest utilize of synthetic progestin is in feedlots, where they are included in the diet to suppress estrus in heifers that are fed in confinement for slaughter. Feeding progestin aids in minimizing physical injuries attributable to sexual behaviors in which animals mount i another, and also improves efficiency of feed utilization. Melengestrol acetate is not approved for use in male person bovines.
THE FEEDLOT SECTOR
The virtually contempo census of agriculture [iii] reported an estimated 26,586 feedlots in the United states. Of these, approximately 61% have fewer than 100 cattle. Approximately 77% of cattle were produced in feedlots with capacity greater than one,000 animals. These feedlots be throughout the USA, only past far the heaviest concentration of cattle finishing occurs in the Great Plains region, which is more often than not characterized by a semi-barren, temperate climate that is well-suited to cattle production. Approximately 2 thirds of USA feedlot cattle production is full-bodied within u.s. of Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas. Logically, big abattoirs also are concentrated within this region. Crop production in this geography is heavily dependent on groundwater from the underlying Ogallala aquifer, which is used extensively for irrigation of corn, wheat, sorghum, and other crops.
FEEDLOT FINISHING DIETS
Free energy content of finishing diets, expressed as net energy for gain (NEg), typically ranges from 1.50 to i.54 Mcal/kg. Consequently, diets of feedlot cattle consist primarily of cereal grains and cereal grain byproducts. Corn is by far the predominant cereal grain. Wheat, which mostly is regarded as a human food crop, oft is used to displace a portion of corn in feedlot diets. Its utilise typically is restricted to sure times of the year when wheat prices are low in comparison to corn, such as immediately following wheat harvest. Wheat and barley are, however, the predominant grains used by feedlots in the Pacific Northwest. Sorghum is an of import cereal ingather produced in the semi-arid states of Kansas and Texas, and to a lesser extent Oklahoma, Colorado, South Dakota, and Nebraska. Though regarded equally being nutritionally inferior to corn, information technology besides is incorporated into feedlot diets when economic conditions favor its utilise.
Feedlots are opportunistic users of a wide range of past product energy feeds. Cereal grain byproducts have become increasingly important as staples of feedlot cattle diets, particularly in the interior of the continental USA where corn and sorghum production prevail. The most important of these is distiller's grain, which is a byproduct of fuel ethanol product from cereal grains. Distiller'southward grains tin can be fed either as wet or dried co-products, the form of which is dictated by proximity of feedlots to ethanol product facilities. Growth of the fuel ethanol industry between 2000 and 2007 represented an unprecedented period of change for the U.s.a. beef industry, during which traditional feedstuffs (i.e. grains) reached historically high prices while distiller'due south grains increased dramatically in abundance. This was crusade for major shifts in limerick of feedlot diets. Wet corn gluten feed (approximately lx% dry out matter), which is derived as a byproduct from the production of corn sweeteners and starches, also is widely used in the feedlot sector. Distiller'southward grains, gluten feed, and other byproducts most commonly comprise between 10% and xl% of the diet dry matter for feedlot cattle. Large differentials in pricing betwixt grain and grain byproducts occasionally dictate much greater rates of inclusion, with concentrations of byproducts reaching 70% or more than of nutrition dry matter in some circumstances. Other byproducts are used as well, including choose potatoes or potato processing wastes (predominantly in the Pacific Northwest), fruit and vegetable byproducts, byproducts from carbohydrate refining, and co-products derived from milling of wheat and processing of soybeans. Many of these byproduct feeds likewise contain intermediate to loftier concentrations of protein, thus making it possible to displace all or a portion of the oilseed meals (soybean, cottonseed, sunflower, canola, and others) traditionally used to satisfy protein requirements of cattle. Consequently, dietary protein often is fed in backlog, which has potentially important environmental implications. Byproduct feeds typically contain more phosphorus than the cereal grains that they replace, further contributing to environmental challenges associated with bars animal feeding operations.
Forages normally institute a relatively small fraction of feedlot diets, and are used primarily to promote digestive health. Alfalfa hay and corn silage are the about commonly used roughages. Increased reliance on byproduct feeds in contempo years has made it economically viable to utilize low protein roughages in feedlot diets, including corn stalks, wheat straw, and other low-value crop residues. Fodder content of finishing diets typically is in the range of 6% to 12% [7].
Product AND DISPOSITION OF Beef
The objective of USA feedlots is to produce beefiness from young cattle (<30 months of age) with ample tenderness and with relatively high intramuscular fatty content. The USA organisation of beef quality grading rewards feedlots for production of highly marbled beef, but as well discourages over-fattening of cattle through classification of carcasses into one of five yield grade categories. Animals that yield carcasses in higher yield grade categories (4 or 5) generally incur heavy market penalties. Size of carcasses too is important, and abattoir companies by and large employ heavy price discounts for undersized (<250 kg) or oversized (>430 kg) carcasses.
The beefiness slaughter industry in the USA is heavily concen trated, with only 4 firms bookkeeping for more than 80% of the beefiness slaughter chapters. Near of the beef they process is distributed in boxed grade, a significant portion of which is exported to other countries. Domestic beef production in 2017 was 11.98 million metric tonnes, approximately 10.six% (1.26 million tonnes) of which was exported [8], either every bit variety meets or as high-quality beef products. The largest volume consign markets for USA beef in 2017 were Nihon (24.3%); Mexico (18.8%); South Korea (14.6%); Hong Kong (ten.iv%), Canada (ix.two%); and Taiwan (3.5%). Exports were roughly beginning past imports (1.36 million tonnes), with Canada (24.7%), Australia (23.2%); Mexico (19.two%), and New Zealand (18.half dozen%) making up the vast majority of imported beef (and veal) products.
Per capita beef consumption of beef in the USA in 2017 was 25.8 kg [nine], and consumption is expected to be slightly college or stable through 2027 [10]. It is estimated that 57% of the beef consumed is in the form of footing products [11]. Imported products, particularly from Commonwealth of australia, are important in fulfilling the increasing demand for ground beefiness products.
FUTURE TRENDS IN THE BEEF INDUSTRY
Domestic demand for beef products is expected to remain stable. Consequently, export markets are increasingly recognized as being an important target for increasing demand for USA beefiness products. OECD/FAO estimates of 1.5% annual increases in demand for meat products through 2026 [x] are cause for optimism amid producers. Though information technology is projected that almost of this need will exist fulfilled by increases in production of poultry products, it is likely that all meat sectors will benefit to some caste.
At that place is a growing tendency within the USA for big purveyors of meat products to exert influence on livestock producers, encouraging them to implement product practices that are perceived as beingness in line with consumer interests. Among the major players are abattoir companies, wholesalers, grocery chains, the hotel and restaurant industries, and others. Topics such as sustainability, animal welfare/wellbeing, environmental compatibility, traceability, antimicrobial resistance, use of exogenous growth promotants, natural or organic production systems, and other areas are becoming increasingly common, and have emerged as central elements in marketing campaigns adopted by many major nutrient companies. This evolution in thinking challenges conventional food creature product systems, and is forcing rapid change in production practices. Every bit a consequence, the focal points of many research programs across the Us have shifted to comprehend these topics.
U.s. beef producers have a long history of adapting quickly to changing market signals in an effort to capture added value. Branded beef programs, which constitute a grade of vertical integration or alignment, are relatively commonplace. Perhaps the all-time known of these is the Certified Angus Beefiness programme, which since its inception in 1978 has arguably transformed the U.s.a. beefiness manufacture equally a result of substantial premiums paid to cattle producers for producing beefiness that fulfills certain quality standards. In backlog of threescore% of cattle fed in the USA at present have some proportion of Angus ancestry, which is testimony to the success of the plan that is now recognized globally as being consistent with quality. Numerous other programs have been spawned in the last forty years, with the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agronomical Marketing Service now listing 90 dissimilar federal certification programs for beefiness, 80 of which were conceived in the year 2000 or later. Scores of other non-certified branding programs accept appeared at the consumer level also, touting features such as omega-3 enrichment of beef; antibiotic free; hormone-free; organic feeding programs; grass-fed programs, and others that are distinguished past the region of production, specific producers, or other features. All are aimed at enhancing value past advertising appealing attributes for which consumers are willing to pay price premiums. As branding programs become more prevalent, vertical alignment betwixt various sectors of the beefiness industry also is increasingly mutual. A class of symbiosis tin can develop in which large production units or consortia of producers align themselves with retail outlets, hotels, or large eating place companies to ensure ongoing demand or to capture marketplace premiums for their products. In turn, the food companies do good through supply agreements that guarantee availability or pricing of products that are produced to meet certain standards that tin encompass beef quality, meat composition (as in the case of omega-iii enrichment), environmental compatibility, sustainability, or production practices that exclude antibiotics and(or) growth promotants, and numerous other marketable concepts.
Traceability programs have been a topic of much discus sion for the past two decades. This discussion intensified immediately following events in December of 2003 surrounding importation of a choose dairy cow from Canada that was discovered to have been infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy. Several central consign markets subsequently were closed to USA beef, which had devastating financial consequences for beef producers and slaughterhouse companies in the United states. Producer organizations are, for the almost part, however, opposed to development of a federally-mandated traceability organization, opting instead for a voluntary system of beast identification and traceability that is market-driven.
In January of 2017 the The states Nutrient and Drug assistants fully enacted revised regulations aimed at decreasing apply of medically-important antibiotics in food animal product systems [6]. Primal to the new regulations is the necessity for veterinary oversight of antibody use. Drugs that previously were available "over the counter" now can be used only with the written prescription of a licensed veterinarian. Since the regulations took consequence, pharmaceutical companies that produce affected drug compounds take cited sharp declines in demand for their products, meat purveyors and retailers accept publicly announced timelines for procurement of products produced without antibiotics, and major beef producers take announced strategies that will be (or take been) implemented to decrease antibiotic use. The "anti" antibiotic motion is thus well underway, and information technology has given nascence to an era of research pertaining to identification of antibody alternatives for utilise in livestock. Much of our own research at Kansas Land University is devoted to the task of finding alternative strategies for mitigation of digestive disorders or infectious diseases, only without use of antibiotics. Whether as a upshot of market pressures or regulatory changes, it seems inevitable that beef product systems of the future are apt to employ production practices that preclude use of antibiotics.
Probiotics are condign increasingly prevalent in the beef production chain, just especially feedlot systems. It has been estimated that approximately 60% of feedlot cattle receive some form of probiotic [7]. Often these consist of Lactobacillus species, fed alone or in combination with Propionibacterium. Normalization of gastrointestinal tract function and competitive inhibition of nutrient-borne pathogens, such as E. coli O157:H7 [12], are the near unremarkably cited reasons for their use. More recently, Megasphaera elsdenii, a lactate-utilizing leaner, has been introduced into the market. Reported benefits include abstention of ruminal acidosis and the power to transition more than quickly to high-concentrate diets [13], as well as improved cattle performance and decreased incidence of illness in immature cattle after arrival in feedlots [14]. Anecdotal evidence from commercial abattoirs has suggested information technology may also subtract fecal shedding of food-borne pathogens, but this effect has still to be validated in a controlled research experiment.
Plants extracts as feed additives constitutes another active surface area of inquiry, with the notion that these compounds may be useful as substitutes for conventional antimicrobial drugs equally a upshot of their antimicrobial activities. Several plant extracts take been studied in depth, including beta acids of hops [xv], menthol [xvi], eugenol [17], cinnamaldehyde [18], limonene [19], and others, and their impact on gut microflora is in some cases well documented. These compounds often emulate the actions of traditional antibiotic drugs, owing in part to similarities in chemical structure. Similarly, heavy metals, including the trace minerals copper and zinc, have been exploited for antibody-similar effects [20], particularly when used in pigs or poultry, but besides in cattle. Zinc is the antimicrobial mineral of selection in cattle due to the relative toxicity of copper, and ofttimes information technology is fed at supra-nutritional concentrations to suppress bacteria that cause foot-rot (infectious pododermatitis), or to aid in combatting respiratory disease. Numerous studies take revealed that it is possible to co-select for resistance to antimicrobial drugs when bacteria are exposed to plant extracts [21] or high concentrations of heavy metals [22,23], even without exposure to the antimicrobial drugs themselves. Given that the basis for excluding antibiotic drugs from the diets of cattle is to avert evolution of antimicrobial resistance in alimentary canal bacteria, information technology would seem that similar caution is warranted in the awarding of plant extracts or heavy metals as antimicrobials, in spite of the fact that they are not marketed specifically as antibiotics.
The USDA does not maintain official statistics on volumes of antibiotic-free, non-hormone treated, or organic beef. In 2012 it was estimated that over 4% of retail foods sold in the U.S. were organically produced [24]. Fruits and vegetable led the market in organic sales, while 3% of meat/poultry/fish were estimated to have been produced organically. According to the Organic Trade Association [25], sales of organic meat and poultry surged by 17% in 2016, and total sales were expected to exceed $1 billion dollars for the first time in 2017. Certification of organically produced meats is administered by the USDA, which maintains official standards for organic production practices. Currently, availability of sufficient quantities of certified organic feedstuffs constitutes a major limitation for growth of this segment of the beef industry. Several branding programs certified by the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service specify beefiness as being "antibiotic complimentary" or "non-hormone treated". Some of these restrict their definition to a specified production stage, while others reverberate production practices employed throughout the lifetime of the animal. There is a sense that need for this market place segment is increasing, simply official estimates are not bachelor. Programs for production of cattle without use of hormones, referred to every bit non-hormone treated cattle, are key to penetrating sure markets, both domestically and internationally. Toll of production generally is higher for whatever of the specialty programs compared to conventional production systems, and producers must therefore be rewarded accordingly with price premiums.
CONCLUSION
The states beef supply is the product of a multi-segmented industry that is consolidating into larger and larger production units, and is increasingly characterized past vertical alignment among industry segments, as well every bit with nutrient wholesalers and retailers and the hotel and restaurant industries. The manufacture makes use of a wide spectrum of nutritional inputs and brute phenotypes that bridge a broad range of geographies and climates. The industry is closely tied to natural grazing resources, likewise as cereal grains and cereal grain byproducts. Information technology is highly adaptive, responding apace to market place signals that reward innovation and alignment with consumer demands. The industry makes extensive utilise of a wide range of technologies related to feed processing, identity preservations, and growth promotion. Complexity of beefiness markets is increasing due to extensive branding efforts and development of niche markets, and need for production of beef representing grass-fed, non-hormone, non-antibiotic, and organic beef markets is growing steadily. Maintaining and expanding demand for United states of america beef likely will necessitate ongoing efforts to develop markets for export, both for variety meats and for high-value cuts of beef.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This is contribution number 18-601-J of the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan.
Footnotes
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
We certify that there is no conflict of interest with any financial arrangement regarding the fabric discussed in the manuscript.
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